Border Crossing

From EU expansion to Brexit: Free movement and the UK from 2004 to 2021

Jonathan Portes — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

I examine the impact of free movement within the European Union on the UK after the decision to allow immediate access to the labour market for workers from the new Member States which joined the EU in 2004. This – and the subsequent accession of Bulgaria and Romania – led to large migration flows to the UK, with both economic and political consequences. Since the Brexit referendum, these flows have largely ceased, but the legacy of this period is a very large and now well-established group of EU-origin migrants, most of whom will ultimately acquire UK citizenship.

Re-framing European Union (EU) - United Kingdom (UK) Cooperation to Address Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling

Matilde Ventrella, Sonia Morano Foadi — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Since the UK’s departure from the EU, the two parties have established a Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) to shape their post-Brexit trade relationship. However, no formal agreement has been reached to address people smuggling and human trafficking, despite the UK government's stated intention to collaborate with the EU in tackling these crimes. We argue that when such an agreement is negotiated, it should adopt a human rights-based approach, ensuring the effective identification and protection of actual and potential victims of human trafficking. Enhanced cooperation in integrated border management, such as the 2024 post-Brexit arrangement between the European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) and the UK, and bilateral agreements with France, has yet to sufficiently prioritise human rights. Like the EU’s other cooperation agreements with third states, any potential future bilateral agreement should also incorporate human rights clauses, in line with specific measures contained in the TCA. These legally binding clauses are designed to safeguard and strengthen the protection of fundamental rights. Addressing the complexity of human trafficking and migrant smuggling, along with the multifaceted governance systems they entail, requires balancing the UK’s national sovereignty with the EU’s legal personality and primacy over its Member States in the development of bilateral agreements rooted in human rights. This challenge requires cooperation and responsibility-sharing, rather than uncoordinated systems that states, and non-state actors can exploit..

Post-Brexit: Hate Crimes and Human Rights Violations in the UK

Özgür H. Çınar — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

As discussion of the political, economic, social and cultural consequences of Brexit for the UK continues, this article will explore how Brexit has affected human rights. With hate crimes increasing after the EU Referendum, there is anxiety regarding human rights and the traditional British lifestyle, based on tolerance and pluralism. Therefore, this article will endeavour to find answers to these questions: will Brexit undermine fundamental human rights? Will the Government’s policies to tackle hate crimes and Brexit-linked human rights violations work? What is the best way to deal with hate crimes? .

The Evolution of Brexit and Its Impact on European Education and Research Programmes

Giuseppe Ciccone — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Brexit has represented a historic transformation in the relationship between the United Kingdom (UK) and the European Union (EU), with significant impacts not only on the political and economic level, but also in the educational and academic spheres. This article explores the effects of Brexit on student mobility and research, analysing in detail the repercussions of the end of the UK's participation in crucial programmes such as Erasmus+ and Horizon Europe. In particular, it examines how the UK, after its withdrawal from Erasmus+, established the Alan Turing Scheme to support the international mobility of British students, albeit with reduced funding compared to the European programme. The impact on UK universities and their opportunities to participate in joint research initiatives is also discussed, highlighting the growing competition for Horizon Europe funds and the increase in bureaucracy following the separation from the European single market. The work concludes with a reflection on the future prospects for the UK and the EU, underlining the need for adaptations to migration, economic and research policies to mitigate the effects of Brexit and foster broader international cooperation. Finally, possible research directions are suggested to better understand the evolution of educational mobility programs, migration policy management and post-Brexit economic competitiveness, with particular attention to the growing role of global alliances such as the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP).

Accessing Rights and Entitlements Under the Withdrawal Agreement: A View From the East of England

Catherine Barnard, Fiona Costello — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

In this commentary we reflect on the citizens’ rights provisions of the Withdrawal Agreement (WA), which came into force on 1 February 2020, and the experiences of low paid (low skilled) EU migrant workers in the East of England in accessing these rights and entitlements. It is well documented that low paid EU citizens do not access/ enforce their rights and entitlements via traditional dispute resolution routes. The Independent Monitoring Authority (IMA) was, in fact, set up to assist EU nationals in the UK not with enforcement as such but with (i) Monitoring how UK public bodies are protecting the rights of EU and EEA EFTA citizens and their family members; and (ii) Promoting the effective implementation of citizens’ rights. They (the IMA) also have powers to launch inquiries and take legal action when appropriate. We have been working with two charities, GYROS (in Great Yarmouth, Norfolk) and PBIC (in 12 Bedford, Bedfordshire), who carried out a survey (drawing on the IMA’s annual citizens’ rights 13 survey) to understand the experiences of low skilled migrant workers from ‘hard to reach’ 14 communities. Using this data, we wanted to understand first, whether low skilled EU nationals are having difficulties accessing their rights (monitoring), and second, whether there are issues with the implementation of those rights (implementation)? The data from the survey suggests that low skilled EU citizens are still having difficulty gaining access to their rights. This is for two reasons: (1) lack of awareness of those rights and (2) some lack of trust in public bodies to fulfil these obligations. These findings are relevant to the full implementation of the Withdrawal Agreement and citizen’s rights to which the UK has committed to faithfully implement (where failure to do so can result in proceedings brought by the EU Commission). This article therefore aims to contribute to the evolving area of scholarship around understanding the experiences of EU citizens in the UK post Brexit by including those ‘harder to reach’ communities and their experiences of accessing rights and entitlements under the WA.

Drifting apart: Family law matters and the ‘Politics of Brexit’

Cleo Davies — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The UK and the EU have no formal agreement on civil justice cooperation on family matters despite both sides agreeing on the need to cooperate post-Brexit during the negotiations. Not only does the Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) make no provisions on cross-border family law matters, but the EU also rejected the UK’s request to accede to the Lugano Convention, which would have largely replicated provisions that existed when the UK was a member state. Instead, uncertainty means UK and EU citizens could face delays and increases in legal costs for cross-border cases. This paper examines how the political dynamics of EU exit hinder cooperation on family law matters because the principle of reciprocity is trumped by political considerations The paper also contextualises post-Brexit cooperation by highlighting how the ‘politics of Brexit’ dovetail with internal EU sensitivities on the EU’s external action in civil justice cooperation in family matters.

Brexit, UK Manufacturing and Industrial Strategy

David Bailey, Ivan Rajic — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This paper offers an overview of the impacts of Brexit on UK manufacturing. In particular it looks at impacts via non-tariff barriers in terms of goods exports, imports, and UK manufacturing’s position in European value chains. It then looks at regulatory divergence and its implications for UK manufacturing. The need for an industrial strategy is examined. Overall, we find that post-Brexit the UK economy is less open to trade and investment, reducing UK manufacturing competitiveness and its ability to compete in both EU and global markets. The government’s new industrial strategy needs to address major issues facing the sector such as skills, investment, scaling-up new clean technologies, as well as ongoing post-Brexit uncertainties.

Uncertainty Kills the Cake: Economy and Society After Brexit and Beyond

Özlem Onaran — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article discussed the key political issue limiting a genuine assessment of Brexit, in particular the divergence between the political narratives around migration and the facts regarding the actual economic impacts of migration, and the economic effects of labour vs. capital mobility. Moving forward, the article discusses political options regarding Britain’s relationship with the EU suggesting membership to the Customs Union and Single Market. The article concludes with an alternative building on a green, purple, red new deal for radical abundance to challenge the current status quo and pave the way for a democratic discussion on Britain’ rejoining the EU.

Where Next for UK Financial Services Post Brexit?

Sarah Hall — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Despite being a central component of the UK’s political economy financial services were largely omitted from the Trade and Cooperation Agreement (2021) struck after the UK left the EU. Whilst worst scenarios in terms of the implications of this for the sector have not materialised, there are growing concerns that the sector is flatlining. In response, and as part of a wider ‘reset’ in UK-EU relations, the Labour government elected in 2024 has sought to improve trade in UK-EU market access. This piece discusses the genealogy of this reset and explores three areas for possible ‘reset’: market access, mobility and regulatory dialogue. It argues that the softening of UK-EU relations following the Windsor Framework is a necessary but not sufficient condition for an effective reset in UK-EU financial services relations and identified as regulatory dialogues that emphasise the economics, rather than politics of finance as the most likely pathway for a UK-EU reset in financial services, at least in the short term.

The Impact of Brexit on Human Mobility Between the UK and the EU After Five Years

İbrahim Sirkeci, Gizem Karaköse — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This commentary examines the impact of Brexit on human mobility between the UK and the EU five years post-implementation. It highlights the significant decline in EU migration to the UK, attributed to the imposition of a points-based immigration system, and the corresponding rise in non-EU migration. Statistical data from the ONS reveal a dramatic shift in migration patterns, reflecting policy changes and societal adjustments. The analysis explores the economic ramifications, including labour shortages and increased costs, and the political consequences, such as the rise of far-right ideologies across Europe. It further discusses the social impacts, including increased xenophobia and altered perceptions of multiculturalism, alongside effects on educational mobility. The commentary concludes that Brexit has fundamentally reshaped human mobility, with lasting economic, political, and social implications for both the UK and the EU.

Brexit and Its Implications for the UK and Europe

Özgür H. Çınar — Sun, 01 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Brexit has been recorded as one of the biggest political and economic ruptures in modern European history. On 23 June 2016, 51.89% of the public voted to leave the European Union (EU) in a referendum. This decision had profound implications not only for the United Kingdom (UK), but also for the European and world economy. Therefore, in April 2025, we addressed the impact of Brexit on Europe and the UK in a conference at the University of Greenwich. This special issue includes papers by scholars who presented their paper at the conference, as well as by authors who were unable to attend but are now contributing to this special issue.