Adaptation and identity shifts after migration and return migration: Turkish qualified returnees from Germany and the US

Meltem Yilmaz Sener

doi:10.33182/bc.v10i1.850

Authors

Meltem Yilmaz Sener Nord University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.33182/bc.v10i1.850

Keywords:

return migration, adaptation, identity shift, qualified migrant, Turkish, Germany, USA

Abstract

This study looks at the adaptation experiences of Turkish qualified migrants who returned to Turkey after living in Germany and the US, discussing their identity shifts both during the period spent in the host country and after the return. I look at their i- pre-migration familiarity with the language and culture of the host country, ii- social groups in the host country, iii- association memberships in the host country, iv- frequency of their visits to Turkey, v- the extent to which they followed the developments in Turkey, vi- reasons behind the decision to return, vii- re-adaptation to the home country culture after return, and viii- relationships with other returnees and host country nationals after return. By focusing on these aspects of their experiences, I aim to demonstrate the kinds of orientations they have had to the host and home country cultures, and the identity shifts they had both after migration and return. I also discuss whether there are any differences between the returnees from Germany and the US in terms of these dimensions.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

Author Biography

Meltem Yilmaz Sener, Nord University

Associate Professor at Nord University, Norway

References

Abadan-Unat, N. (1964). Batı Almanya'daki Türk işçileri ve sorunları. Ankara: DPT.

Abadan-Unat, N. (1976). Turkish migration to Europe, 1960-1977. In: N. Abadan-Unat (ed.), Turkish workers in Europe, 1960-1975 (pp.1-44). Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Abadan-Unat, N. (2011). Turks in Europe: From guest worker to transnational citizen. New York: Berghahn Books.

Adler, N. (1981). Re-entry: Managing cross-cultural transitions. Group and Organizational Studies, 6(3), 341-356.

https://doi.org/10.1177/105960118100600310

Akçapar, Ş. K. (2009). Turkish highly skilled migration to the United States: New findings and policy recommendations. In: İçduygu, A. and Kirişci, K. (eds), Land of diverse migrations, challenges of emigration and immigration in Turkey. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi University Press.

Akgündüz, A. (1993). Labor migration from Turkey to Western Europe, 1960-1974. Capital and Class, 17(3), 153-194.

https://doi.org/10.1177/030981689305100107

Allison, P. Davis-Berman, J. and Berman, D. (2012). Changes in latitude, changes in attitude: Analysis of the effects of reverse culture shock: A Study of students returning from youth expeditions." Leisure Studies, 31, 487-503.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2011.619011

Baruch, Y. and Altman, Y. (2002) Expatriation and repatriation in MNCs: A Taxonomy", Human Resource Management, 41(2), 239-59.

https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.10034

Baruch, Y., Steele, D.J. and Quantrill, G.A. (2002). Management of expatriation and repatriation for novice global player." International Journal of Manpower, 23(7), 659-71.

https://doi.org/10.1108/01437720210450824

Berry, J. Poortinga, Y., Segall, M. and Dasen, P. (1992). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Berry, J. (1980). Social and cultural change. In H. Tiandris and R. Brislin (eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (pp. 211-280). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Berry, J. (1997). Immigration, Acculturation and Adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46, 5-68.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x

Berry, J. (2001). A Psychology of Immigration. Journal of Social Issues, 57(3), 615-631.

https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00231

Berry, J. (2005). Acculturation: Living Successfully in Two Cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 697-712.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013

Black, S., Gregersen, H., and Mendenhall, M. (1992). Global Assignments. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bossard, A. and Peterson, R. (2005). The Repatriate Experience as Seen by American Expatriates. Journal of World Business, 40(1), 9-28.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2004.10.002

Cassarino, J.P. (2004). Theorizing return migration: The conceptual approach to return migrants revisited." International Journal on Multicultural Societie,s 6, 253-79.

Cerase, F.. (1974). Expectations and reality: A case study of return migration from the United States to Southern Italy." International Migration Review, 8 (2), 245- 62.

https://doi.org/10.1177/019791837400800210

Chamove, A. and Soeterik, S. (2006). Grief in returning sojourners. Journal of Social Sciences, 13 (3), 215-220.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2006.11892552

Cockburn, L. (2002). Children and young people living in changing worlds. School Psychology International, 23 (4), 475-485.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034302234008

Dewaele, J.M. and van Oudenhoven, J.P. (2009). The Effect of multilingualism/ multiculturalism on personality: No gain without pain for third culture kids?" International Journal of Multilingualism, 6, 443-459.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710903039906

Fail, H., Thompson, J. and Walker, G. (2004). Belonging, identity and third culture kids." Journal of Research in International Education, 3(3), 319-338.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240904047358

Furukawa, T. (1997). Sojourner readjustment: Mental health of international students after one year's foreign sojourn and its psychosocial correlates." Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185 (4), 263-268.

https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199704000-00007

Gaw, K. (2000). Reverse culture shock in students returning from overseas." International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24(1), 83-104.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00024-3

Gitmez, A. (1983). Yurtdışına İşçi Göçü ve Geri Dönüşler. Istanbul: Alan Yayıncılık.

Gmelch, G. (1980). Return migration. Annual Review of Anthropology, 9, 135 -159.

https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.09.100180.001031

Guzzetta, C. (2004). Return migration. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Services,, 2 (1- 2),, 109-17.

https://doi.org/10.1300/J191v02n01_07

Herman, J. and Tetrick, L. (2009). Problem-focused versus emotion-focused coping strategies and repatriation adjustment. Human Resource Management,, 48, 69-88.

https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20267

Huff, J. (2001). Parental attachment, reverse culture shock, perceived social support, and college adjustment of missionary children. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 29 (3), 246-264.

https://doi.org/10.1177/009164710102900307

İçduygu, A. and Kirişci, K. (2009). Land of Diverse Migrations: Challenges of Emigration and Immigration in Turkey. Istanbul: Bilgi University Press.

İçduygu, A. and Sert, D. (2016). A debate over return migration: The case of Turkish guest workers in Germany." In D. Leal and N. Rodrigues (eds.), Migration in an Era of Restriction and Recession: Immigrants and Minorities, Politics and Policy (pp.259-72). Springer: Cham.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24445-7_13

Karpat, K. (1985). The Ottoman emigration to America, 1860-1914." International Journal of Middle East Studies, 17, 175-209.

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743800028993

Kaya, A. and Kentel, F. (2005). Euro-Turks: A bridge or a breach between Turkey and the European Union? Bruseels: Center for European Policy Studies.

Kaya, I.. (2004). Turkish-American immigration history and identity formations." Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 24 (2), 295-308.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1360200042000296672

Langford, M. (1998). Global nomads, third culture kids and international schools." In M. Hayden and J. Thompson (eds.), International Education: Principles and Practice, (pp. 28- 43). London: Kogan Page.

Linehan, M. and Scullion, H. (2002). Repatriation of female international managers." International Journal of Manpower, 23 (7), 649-658.

https://doi.org/10.1108/01437720210450806

Martin, J. (1984). The intercultural re-entry: Conceptualization and directions for future research. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 8 (2), 115-34.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(84)90035-X

Mazzucato, V.(2007). Return Migration in Ghana: An Overview. Paris: OECD.

Micallef, R. (2004). Turkish Americans: Performing identities in a transnational setting. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 24(2), 233-241.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1360200042000296636

Moore, A. and Barker, G. (2012). Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals' cultural identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36 (4), 553-562.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

Morgan, L., Nie, W. and Young, S. (2004). Operational factors as determinants of expatriate and repatriate success. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 24(12), 1247-68.

https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570410569038

Penninx, R. (1982). A Critical review of theory and practice: The case of Turkey. International Migration Review, 16, 781-818.

https://doi.org/10.1177/019791838201600404

Pollock, D. and van Reken, R. (1999). The third culture kid experience: Growing up among worlds. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Presbitero, A. (2016). Culture shock and reverse culture shock: The moderating role of cultural intelligence in international students' adaptation." International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 53, 28-38.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2016.05.004

Rodrigues, C. (2001). International management. St Paul, MN: West Publishing.

Sahin, N. H. (1990). Re-entry and the academic and psychological problems of the second generation." Psychology and Developing Societies, 2(2), 165-182.

https://doi.org/10.1177/097133369000200202

Sirkeci, İ. (2005). Diaspora: Turkish. In M. Gibney and R. Hansen (eds.), Immigration and Asylum from 1900 to the Present (pp.607-610). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.

Stroh, L., Gregersen, H. and Black, S. (1998). Closing the Gap: Expectations versus Reality among Repatriates. Journal of World Business, 33(2), 111-24.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-9516(98)90001-3

Sussman, N. (2000). The dynamic nature of cultural identity throughout cultural transitions: Why home is not so sweet." Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(4), 355-373.

https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0404_5

Sussman, N. (2002). Testing the cultural identity model of the cultural transition cycle: Sojourners return home." International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 26(4), 391-408.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00013-5

Sussman, N. (2007). Identity shifts as a consequence of crossing cultures: Hong Kong Chinese migrants return home." In K. Chan, J. Walls, and D. Hayward (eds.), East-West Identities: Globalization, Localization, and Hybridization (pp. 121-147). Leiden: Brill.

https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004151697.i-404.46

Thompson, C. and Christofi, V. (2006). Can you go home again? A Phenomenological investigation of Cypriot students returning home after studying abroad." International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 28(1), 21-39.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-005-8493-0

Toktaş, Ş. (2012). Introduction: 50 years of emigration from Turkey to Germany - A success story?" Perceptions 17(2), 5-9.

Useem, R. and Downie., R. (1976). Third culture kids. Today's Education, 65(3), 103-105.

Walters, K. and Auton-Cuff, F. (2009). A story to tell: The identity development of women growing up as third culture kids." Mental Health, Religion and Culture 12(7 ) 755-772.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670903029153

Weaver, G. (1993). Understanding and coping with cross-cultural adjustment stress. In M. Paige (ed.), Education for the Intercultural Experience (pp. 193-225). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Yilmaz Sener, M. (2019). Perceived discrimination as a major factor behind return migration? The return of Turkish qualified migrants from the USA and Germany. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 45:15, 2801-2819, DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2018.1524292